One of the most important developments associated with the Yōrō Period was the Yōrō Code, a revision of the earlier Taihō Code. Although the Yōrō Code was compiled during this era, it was formally promulgated later, in 757 CE. The period also witnessed the completion of the Nihon Shoki in 720 CE, one of Japan’s earliest official historical chronicles.
The Yōrō Period was also marked by the continued growth of Buddhism, the development of the capital at Heijō-kyō (modern Nara), the expansion of imperial administration, and increasing cultural exchange with China and the Korean Peninsula.
In this article, we will explore the Yōrō Period in detail, including its dates, Empress Genshō’s reign, the Yōrō Code, the Ritsuryō government, taxation, agriculture, Buddhism, society, literature, foreign relations, and the historical importance of this fascinating period in ancient Japanese history.
What Was the Yōrō Period?
The Yōrō Period (養老) was a Japanese historical era that lasted from 717 to 724 CE. It followed the Reiki Period (715–717) and was followed by the Jinki Period (724–729).
Japanese historical eras are traditionally identified by nengō (年号), or era names, which were adopted by the imperial government to mark particular periods of the reign and administration.
Yōrō Period: Quick Facts
Feature | Details |
|---|---|
Japanese name | Yōrō (養老) |
Period | 717–724 CE |
Previous era | Reiki |
Following era | Jinki |
Ruling monarch | Empress Genshō |
Capital | Heijō-kyō (modern Nara) |
Historical period | Nara Period |
Major legal development | Compilation of the Yōrō Code |
Major historical work | Nihon Shoki, completed in 720 CE |
Main political system | Ritsuryō state |
Although the Yōrō Period lasted only about seven years, it was part of a much larger transformation in which Japan was developing a more centralized imperial government.
Historical Background of the Yōrō Period
To understand the Yōrō Period, it is necessary to look at the political changes that took place in Japan during the seventh and early eighth centuries.
Earlier Japanese politics had been strongly influenced by powerful clans. Over time, however, the imperial court began building a more centralized government in which officials were appointed to administrative positions and laws were written down.
This transformation began during the Asuka Period and became more developed through reforms associated with rulers such as Emperor Tenmu, Empress Jitō, and Emperor Monmu.
The government introduced institutions influenced by continental East Asian models, particularly those of Tang China.
These included:
Central government ministries
Provincial administration
Written laws
Official ranks
Taxation systems
Land regulations
Census and population records
Government-controlled agricultural land
A stronger imperial bureaucracy
The Taihō Code of 701 was an important milestone in this process. The Yōrō Period continued this development through the revision of the legal system and the strengthening of the Ritsuryō state.
Empress Genshō and the Yōrō Period
The central ruler of the Yōrō Period was Empress Genshō (680–748), who reigned from 715 to 724 CE.
She was the daughter of Prince Kusakabe and Empress Gemmei, and she became the 44th monarch traditionally listed in Japan’s imperial succession.
Empress Genshō inherited a government that had already undergone major administrative reforms. Her reign continued the policies of earlier rulers and helped maintain the development of the centralized state.
Her reign is particularly associated with:
Continued development of the Ritsuryō system
Revision of the legal code
Government administration
Historical writing
Agricultural and land policies
The continued growth of Buddhism
Expansion of imperial authority
An important event during her reign was the completion of the Nihon Shoki in 720 CE.
The Yōrō Code
The Yōrō Code (Yōrō-ritsuryō) was one of the most important legal developments associated with this period.
It was a revised and expanded version of the earlier Taihō Code, which had been established in 701.
The Yōrō Code was prepared by leading officials and scholars of the imperial government. Fujiwara no Fuhito played an important role in its development, although he died in 720 before its later formal promulgation.
The code followed the basic structure of the Ritsuryō legal system.
It consisted of two broad parts:
Ritsu – criminal law
Ryō – administrative and civil regulations
What Did the Yōrō Code Regulate?
The code dealt with many areas of government and society, including:
Government offices
Official ranks
Criminal offenses
Court procedures
Taxation
Land administration
Military obligations
Family relationships
Social status
Local administration
Religious institutions
Responsibilities of government officials
The Yōrō Code therefore represented an important attempt to organize Japanese government and society through a comprehensive written legal system.
When Was the Yōrō Code Promulgated?
This is an important historical distinction.
The Yōrō Code was compiled during the Yōrō era, but it was formally promulgated in 757 CE, during the reign of Emperor Kōken.
Therefore, it is inaccurate to say that the fully implemented Yōrō Code governed Japan throughout 717–724. A more accurate statement is that the Yōrō Period was the era in which the revised code was compiled and prepared.
The Ritsuryō Government in the Yōrō Period
The Yōrō Period was part of the development of Japan’s Ritsuryō state.
The term Ritsuryō refers to a system of government based on written criminal laws (ritsu) and administrative laws (ryō).
The system was designed to place greater political authority in the hands of the imperial court.
The Central Government
The central government was organized around major administrative institutions.
Daijō-kan
The Daijō-kan, or Council of State, was the main administrative body of the central government.
It supervised important areas of government and coordinated the work of officials.
Jingikan
The Jingikan, or Department of Divinities, was responsible for important court rituals and religious ceremonies connected with the imperial institution.
This shows that political administration and religious traditions were closely connected in ancient Japan.
Provincial Government
The central government divided much of Japan into provinces, districts, and smaller administrative units.
Provincial officials were responsible for implementing government policies and handling local administration.
Their duties included:
Collecting taxes
Maintaining public order
Managing government resources
Recording population and land information
Reporting to the central government
Organizing labor and other obligations
This system allowed the imperial court to exercise greater control over areas far beyond the capital.
Heijō-kyō: The Capital During the Yōrō Period
The capital of Japan during the Yōrō Period was Heijō-kyō, located in present-day Nara Prefecture.
The capital had been established in 710 CE, beginning the Nara Period.
Heijō-kyō was heavily influenced by the planned capitals of Tang China, particularly in its layout and government organization.
The city contained:
Imperial residences
Government offices
Buddhist temples
Aristocratic residences
Markets
Roads
Workshops
Administrative buildings
Heijō-kyō became the political, economic, religious, and cultural center of the Japanese state.
The concentration of officials, aristocrats, monks, craftsmen, traders, and other residents also helped make the capital an important center of cultural exchange.
Buddhism During the Yōrō Period
Buddhism continued to become more influential during the Yōrō Period.
Although Buddhism had originally entered Japan centuries earlier, it became increasingly connected with the imperial government during the Nara Period.
The court supported Buddhist temples and religious institutions partly because Buddhism was believed to provide spiritual protection and contribute to the stability of the state.
Major Buddhist temples in and around the Nara region included:
Tōdai-ji
Kōfuku-ji
Yakushi-ji
Gangō-ji
Some of these institutions became wealthy and influential organizations.
The relationship between Buddhism and the state became even stronger during the reign of Emperor Shōmu, who succeeded Empress Genshō.
Provincial Buddhist Temples
The government also promoted Buddhism outside the capital.
The system of Kokubunji and Kokubun-niji—provincial temples and convents—was developed more fully under Emperor Shōmu in the decades after the Yōrō Period.
These institutions were intended to promote Buddhist practice and prayers for the protection and well-being of the state.
They also helped strengthen the cultural and religious connection between the imperial court and the provinces.
It is therefore important to distinguish the Yōrō Period's general growth of state-supported Buddhism from the later, more systematic provincial temple program of Emperor Shōmu.
Agriculture and Land Administration
Agriculture was the foundation of Japan's economy during the Yōrō Period.
Most of the population lived in rural communities and depended heavily on farming, especially rice cultivation.
The Ritsuryō government attempted to regulate agricultural land through systems of land distribution and taxation.
One important principle was the Handen system, under which certain categories of land were distributed to eligible people for cultivation.
In theory, the state maintained control over agricultural land and allocated fields to people who were expected to cultivate them and meet tax obligations.
The system was connected to the government's efforts to:
Maintain agricultural production
Collect taxes
Record the population
Organize rural communities
Strengthen state control over land
However, maintaining this system became increasingly difficult over time.
Population growth, the development of new farmland, administrative problems, and the increasing influence of private estates gradually weakened the government's ability to maintain complete control over land.
Taxation During the Yōrō Period
Taxation was essential for supporting the imperial government.
The Ritsuryō system required agricultural communities to provide different types of taxes, goods, and labor.
Three commonly discussed forms were:
Sō
A tax generally connected with agricultural production, particularly rice.
Chō
A tax paid through local products, including textiles and other goods.
Yō
Labor service that people were required to provide to the government.
These obligations helped support:
Government officials
The imperial court
Public construction
Military activities
Transportation
Religious institutions
The capital
For farmers, these obligations could be demanding, particularly when harvests were poor.
Society During the Yōrō Period
Japanese society during the Yōrō Period was highly organized and hierarchical.
The imperial family occupied the highest political position, followed by aristocratic families and government officials.
Below the elite were large numbers of farmers, craftsmen, laborers, merchants, and other groups.
The Ritsuryō government attempted to classify people according to their social status and regulate their responsibilities.
Social status could affect:
Tax obligations
Legal rights
Occupation
Government service
Family status
Access to certain privileges
The legal system also recognized categories of people with different social positions and rights.
However, the social structure of ancient Japan was complex, and actual conditions often differed from the ideal system described in government laws.
The Fujiwara Clan and Political Power
The Fujiwara clan was becoming increasingly important during the early eighth century.
One of its most influential members was Fujiwara no Fuhito, who had played a major role in the development of the early Ritsuryō government and the Taihō legal system.
Fuhito died in 720 CE, during the Yōrō Period.
His death did not end Fujiwara influence. His descendants continued to occupy important positions at the imperial court and would later become one of the most powerful political families in Japanese history.
The political rise of the Fujiwara family would become especially important during the later Nara and Heian periods.
The Nihon Shoki: A Major Achievement of 720 CE
One of the most important events of the Yōrō Period was the completion of the Nihon Shoki in 720 CE.
The Nihon Shoki, also known as the Chronicles of Japan, was an official historical work compiled for the imperial court.
It presented a long account of Japan's history, beginning with creation myths and legendary rulers and continuing into more historically documented periods.
The work included:
Creation stories
Imperial genealogies
Legends
Religious traditions
Political events
Military conflicts
Diplomatic relations
Accounts of rulers
The Nihon Shoki was written primarily in Classical Chinese, the major written language used for scholarship and official records across East Asia.
The work was important because it helped the Japanese court present a continuous historical tradition centered on the imperial line.
Literature and the Man'yōshū
The Yōrō Period also belongs to an important stage in the development of Japanese literature.
The Man'yōshū, Japan's oldest surviving major collection of poetry, was compiled over several decades and was completed later in the eighth century.
Therefore, it should not be described as a work completed during the Yōrō Period.
However, the Yōrō era formed part of the cultural environment in which the poems of the Man'yōshū were created and preserved.
The collection contains poems about:
Love
Nature
Travel
Family
Death
Separation
War
Court life
Everyday experiences
The poetry provides valuable insight into the emotions, beliefs, relationships, and daily experiences of people living in ancient Japan.
Chinese Influence on Yōrō Japan
The development of the Japanese state during this period was strongly influenced by contact with Tang China.
Japanese missions and travelers brought back knowledge of continental political and cultural institutions.
Chinese influence could be seen in:
Government organization
Legal systems
Writing
Buddhism
Architecture
Urban planning
Art
Medicine
Philosophy
Literature
However, Japan did not simply copy the Chinese system.
Japanese rulers adapted foreign ideas to fit the country's own political traditions, geography, social structure, and imperial institution.
This process of adaptation played an important role in the formation of early Japanese civilization.
Influence of the Korean Peninsula
The Korean Peninsula also played an important role in Japan's cultural development.
For centuries, ideas, technologies, religious traditions, and artistic techniques had reached Japan through connections with Korean kingdoms and societies.
These exchanges contributed to the development of:
Buddhism
Writing
Metalworking
Architecture
Art
Political ideas
Craft production
By the Yōrō Period, Japan had developed a sophisticated culture that combined indigenous traditions with influences from the Korean Peninsula and China.
Frontier Administration and the Emishi
The imperial government did not exercise equal control over every part of the Japanese archipelago.
One major challenge existed in northeastern Japan, where communities known to the court as Emishi lived outside the full control of the central government.
The imperial court attempted to expand its authority into these regions through:
Military campaigns
Administrative centers
Fortifications
Settlement
Political alliances
The expansion of imperial authority was a long process and continued well beyond the Yōrō Period.
It became an important part of the political history of northeastern Japan.
Natural Disasters, Disease and Rural Hardships
Life during the Yōrō Period could be difficult for ordinary people.
Japan's agricultural economy was vulnerable to environmental problems such as:
Flooding
Drought
Crop failure
Disease
Food shortages
Because rice production was central to the economy, poor harvests could affect both rural communities and government revenue.
Natural disasters could also make it difficult for farmers to meet their tax and labor obligations.
These problems were among the challenges faced by the Ritsuryō government as it attempted to maintain a centralized system across Japan.
Why Was the Yōrō Period Important?
The Yōrō Period was short, but its historical importance was considerable.
1. Development of Japanese Law
The compilation of the Yōrō Code represented an important stage in the development of Japan's written legal system.
2. Strengthening of Central Government
The imperial court continued to develop a centralized bureaucracy and strengthen its authority over the provinces.
3. Growth of Buddhism
Buddhism became increasingly connected with government, court culture, and ideas about the protection of the state.
4. Historical Writing
The completion of the Nihon Shoki in 720 CE provided the imperial court with an important official historical record.
5. Development of Nara Culture
Heijō-kyō continued to grow as a center of government, religion, literature, art, and cultural exchange.
6. Continental Cultural Exchange
Japan continued adapting political, religious, artistic, and intellectual influences from China and the Korean Peninsula.
7. Continued State Expansion
The government continued its efforts to extend imperial authority into regions beyond its strongest areas of control.
End of the Yōrō Period
The Yōrō Period ended in 724 CE.
Empress Genshō abdicated in favor of her nephew, who became Emperor Shōmu.
The imperial government then changed the era name from Yōrō to Jinki, beginning a new phase of the Nara Period.
Emperor Shōmu's reign would become especially important for the development of state-supported Buddhism and the construction of major Buddhist institutions.
The political, economic, and religious developments of his reign built upon many of the institutions that had been strengthened during the Yōrō Period.
Yōrō Period Timeline
Year | Event |
|---|---|
717 | The Yōrō era begins |
717–724 | Empress Genshō remains the reigning monarch |
720 | Nihon Shoki is completed |
720 | Fujiwara no Fuhito dies |
Early 8th century | Revision and compilation of the Yōrō legal code |
724 | Empress Genshō abdicates |
724 | Emperor Shōmu becomes emperor |
724 | Yōrō era ends and Jinki era begins |
757 | Yōrō Code is formally promulgated |
Yōrō Period vs. Taihō Period
The Yōrō and Taihō periods are closely connected because both played an important role in the development of Japan's Ritsuryō state.
| Feature | Taihō Period | Yōrō Period |
|---|---|---|
| Dates | 701–704 CE | 717–724 CE |
| Ruler | Emperor Monmu | Empress Genshō |
| Major legal development | Taihō Code | Yōrō Code |
| Capital | Fujiwara-kyō | Heijō-kyō |
| Political focus | Establishment of the Ritsuryō framework | Continued development and revision of the system |
| Major historical work | Development of early court records | Nihon Shoki completed in 720 |
The Taihō Period was associated with the establishment of a major early legal framework, while the Yōrō Period was associated with its later revision and development.
Conclusion
The Yōrō Period in Japan (717–724 CE) was a brief but important stage in the development of ancient Japanese civilization. Taking place during the Nara Period, it was an era in which the imperial court continued to strengthen the centralized Ritsuryō state and improve its systems of law, administration, taxation, land management, and provincial government.
The Yōrō Code was one of the most important developments associated with the period. As a revision of the earlier Taihō legal system, it helped shape Japan's administrative and legal traditions, although it was formally promulgated only in 757 CE. The completion of the Nihon Shoki in 720 CE was another major achievement, giving the imperial court an important official historical record centered on Japan's imperial tradition.
The period also witnessed the continued growth of Buddhism, literature, agriculture, and cultural exchange with Tang China and the Korean Peninsula. Meanwhile, Heijō-kyō, modern Nara, remained the political and cultural heart of the country.
Although the Yōrō Period lasted only seven years, its developments had a lasting influence on Japan's political, legal, religious, and cultural history. Studying the Yōrō era provides a clearer understanding of how Japan's early centralized state developed and how the foundations of Nara-period society and government shaped the later history of Japan.
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